Difference in mortality rates in hospitalized COVID-19 patients identified by cytokine profile clustering using a machine learning approach: An outcome prediction alternative.

COVID-19 is a disease caused by the novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 causing an acute respiratory disease that can eventually lead to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). An exacerbated inflammatory response is characteristic of SARS-CoV-2 infection, which leads to a cytokine release syndrome also known as cytokine storm associated with the severity of the disease. Considering the importance of this event in the immunopathology of COVID-19, this study analyses cytokine levels of hospitalized patients to identify cytokine profiles associated with severity and mortality. Using a machine learning approach, 3 clusters of COVID-19 hospitalized patients were created based on their cytokine profile. Significant differences in the mortality rate were found among the clusters, associated to different CXCL10/IL-38 ratio. The balance of a CXCL10 induced inflammation with an appropriate immune regulation mediated by the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-38 appears to generate the adequate immune context to overrule SARS-CoV-2 infection without creating a harmful inflammatory reaction. This study supports the concept that analyzing a single cytokine is insufficient to determine the outcome of a complex disease such as COVID-19, and different strategies incorporating bioinformatic analyses considering a broader immune profile represent a more robust alternative to predict the outcome of hospitalized patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

5-Locus high-resolution HLA allele and haplotype frequencies in Costa Ricans from the Central Valley.

A total of 221 Costa Rican Mestizos from the Central Valley were genotyped at high-resolution for the human leukocyte antigen loci HLA-A, -B, -C, -DRB1, and -DQB1 using sequence-based typing methods. The respective allele and extended haplotype frequencies, as well as Hardy-Weinberg proportions were calculated. The most frequent extended haplotype identified was A*24:02:01-B*40:02:01-C*03:05-DRB1*08:02:01-DQB1*04:02:01, with an estimated frequency of 2.04%. No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was detected at any of the loci studied. The HLA genotypic data of the population sample reported here are available publicly in the Allele Frequencies Net Database under the population name "Costa Rica Central Valley Mestizo" and the identifier AFN3606.

4-Locus high-resolution HLA allele and haplotype frequencies in Amerindians from Costa Rica.

A total of 125 Costa Ricans of Amerindian descent were genotyped at high-resolution for the human leukocyte antigen loci HLA-A, -B, -C, and -DRB1 using sequence-based typing methods. The respective allele and extended haplotype frequencies, as well as Hardy-Weinberg proportions were calculated. The most frequent extended haplotype identified was A*24:02:01-B*40:02:01-C*03:05-DRB1*04:07:01G, with an estimated frequency of 8.26%. A deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was detected at the DRB1 locus (p = 0.099). The HLA genotypic data of the population sample reported here are available publicly in the Allele Frequencies Net Database under the population name "Costa Rica Amerindians" and the identifier AFN3608.

4-Locus high-resolution HLA allele and haplotype frequencies in Costa Ricans from Guanacaste.

A total of 110 Costa Rican Mestizos from the province of Guanacaste were genotyped at high-resolution for the human leukocyte antigen loci HLA-A, -B, -C, and -DRB1 using sequence-based typing methods. The respective allele and extended haplotype frequencies, as well as Hardy-Weinberg proportions were calculated. The most frequent extended haplotype identified was A*24:02:01-B*35:12:01-C*04:01:01-DRB1*04:07:01G, with an estimated frequency of 2.73%. No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was detected at any of the loci studied. The HLA genotypic data of the population sample reported here are available publicly in the Allele Frequencies Net Database under the population name "Costa Rica Guanacaste Mestizo" and the identifier AFN3609.

4-Locus high-resolution HLA allele and haplotype frequencies in admixed population from Nicaragua.

A total of 155 Nicaraguan Mestizos from across the country were genotyped at high-resolution for the human leukocyte antigen loci HLA-A, -B, -C, and -DRB1 using sequence-based typing methods. The respective allele and extended haplotype frequencies, as well as Hardy-Weinberg proportions were calculated. The most frequent extended haplotype identified was A*24:02:01-B*40:02:01-C*03:05-DRB1*04:07:01G, with an estimated frequency of 2.26%. No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was detected at any of the loci studied. The HLA genotypic data of the population sample reported here are available publicly in the Allele Frequencies Net Database under the population name "Nicaragua Mestizo" and the identifier AFN3610.

4-Locus high-resolution HLA allele and haplotype frequencies in Costa Ricans from African-Caribbean descent.

A total of 102 Costa Ricans of African-Caribbean descent were genotyped at high-resolution for the human leukocyte antigen loci HLA-A, -B, -C, and -DRB1 using sequence-based typing methods. The respective allele and extended haplotype frequencies, as well as Hardy-Weinberg proportions were calculated. The most frequent extended haplotype identified was A*01:01:01-B*08:01:01-C*07:01:01-DRB1*03:01:01G, with an estimated frequency of 1.96%. No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was detected at any of the loci studied. The HLA genotypic data of the population sample reported here are available publicly in the Allele Frequencies Net Database under the population name "Costa Rica African-Caribbeans" and the identifier AFN3607.